Hydrological Impacts of Wimbleball Reservoir

Hydrological Impacts of Wimbleball Reservoir An Evaluation of the hydrological impacts of Wimbleball Reservoir using the IHA approach A river acts both as a source and carrier of water for supporting and sustaining the biological diversity and integrity of the aquatic, wetland and riparian species and natural ecosystems. To accomplish these functions, it is necessary that river water meets some essential qualitative and quantitative parameters and the stream-flow exhibits the dynamics and hydrological attributes comparable to that of natural or unaltered river flows (hydrologic regime). This hydrologic regime is the lifeline of freshwater ecosystem and all diverse variety of aquatic riparian species are for long accustomed and adapted to the characteristic temporal, spatial and hydrologic variation of water flow cycles attributable to the natural or unaltered water flow. Unfortunately, this regime and its naturally configured variation patterns get disturbed failing to absorb the stresses induced by our ever-increasing demands and environmentally irresponsive use of water. To evaluate the shifts in the pre and post-reservoir hydrologic parameters, the effect of Wimbleball Reservoir have been analysed based on the long-term flow-patterns of the downstream discharge of the reservoir. The analysis was conducted by a very robust statistical model called the IHA model. Both long term differences and RVA analysis show substantial impacts of manmade reservoir control on the biota of the Exe-catchment. Introduction Water bodies like rivers, streams, channels, etc. serve a dual function being essential source points for our day-to-day water requirements as well being its transporters or carriers by flowing in and channelling water downstream to the river beds, catchments and agricultural fields in the process supporting and sustaining the biological diversity and integrity of the aquatic, wetland and riparian species and natural ecosystems. Our earth is also called the ‘water planet’ as water forms approximately 70% of its total surface (The Ground Water Foundation,2003) but only a part of it is available for our use. This realization has long back prompted us to take up some water management practices. In the beginning, water management practices were very much focused on issues like water quality and flood control measures and the overall strategy was never so broad to include other aspects like water quantity, stream flow management and restoration (BD, Richter, etal,1997)2. However, issues pertaining to water quantity, flow, restoration, etc. gradually started to get prominence in our policy framework following a landmark order passed by the US Supreme Court identifying the separation of water quality from water quantity and flow as an artificial distinction and recommending incorporation of both water quality and quantity objectives in a broader and comprehensive water management policy framework (US-EPA, 2002)3. Water quality, quantity flow conditions are in way inseparable features considering the fact that the amount of flow in a river effects many issues of water quality and water quantity at the same time. Therefore, the assessment on the wholesomeness of water in any system is essentially dictated by the above conditions of quality, quantity and flow characteristics. Going by this approach broadens the overall water policy framework making this a comprehensive management initiative. This shift in water management approach necessitated re-configuration of the erstwhile single or limited objective driven practice of flood storm water control thereby embracing a comprehensive initiative of total ecosystem management restoration having multi-utility potentials. This system is very important and effective because this takes into account the sustainable use of water resources or ‘water takings’ and their possible restoration (Dept. of Fisheries Oceans, Canada, 2002)4. Under the ambit of this, it is necessary that river water meets some essential qualitative and quantitative parameters and the stream-flow exhibits the dynamics and hydrological attributes (hydrologic regime) comparable to that of natural or unaltered river flow (Richter D. Brian etal) 5. This hydrologic regime or ‘natural flow regime’ is the lifeline of freshwater ecosystem and all diverse variety of aquatic riparian species are for long accustomed and adapted to the characteristic temporal, spatial and hydrologic variations of water flow cycles attributable to the natural or unaltered water flow. Unfortunately, this regime and its naturally configured variation patterns get disturbed (Allan David HinzLeon, SNRE, 2004)6 failing to absorb the stresses induced by our ever-increasing water takings demands and environmentally irresponsive use of water. In fact, this is the point where human intervention or controls and water integrity issues found themselves in a highly confronting and conflicting platform. Increased water demands compelling human actions like construction of water reservoirs, dams, impoundments, etc. for storing and using water for domestic, energy and hydropower, artificial parks and various other uses have started taking their toll on river waters and water bodies substantially degrading the quality, quantity and importantly squeezing the downstream water flows(Benue, A. C. 1990). This flow reduction in rivers consequential to manmade flood and irrigation control practices like reservoirs and dams are found to alter the natural hydrologic regime bringing in a series of impairments to overall ecosystem and also opening up a new front in the field of river and hydrology studies. This paper aims to assess the variations in the hydrological parameters of a river system specifically attributable to impacts of man-made interventions or controls like reservoirs. Primarily, the research ambition is to identify and evaluate the degree of alterations in the hydrologic profile by analysing the long-term historical as well recent water flow records representative of the pre-impact and post-impact period of construction and commissioning of a typical reservoir. An emerging computer tool called the ‘IHA’ (Indicators of Hydrologic Alterations) has been applied to generate scenarios and analyze the data. The records and data needs for this study have been sourced from an existing gauging station in the Exe river of South-West England strategically selected to represent the influence of the ‘Wimbleball Reservoir’. Natural Flow Regime Hydrologic Alterations – Ecological Significance The concept of natural flow regime is based on the understanding that aquatic and riparian organisms depend upon, or can tolerate arrange of flow conditions specific to each species (Puff etal, 1997)7.For example, certain fish species moves into safer floodplain areas during floods to feed and escape from attacks of other species occupying the main water body thereby adapting a mechanism to survive and carry on all by itself. This in a way indicates that if flooding occurs at the right time of the year, and lasts for the right amount of time, these fish populations will benefit from the flood event finally. Again as a contrast to this case, other species may be adversely affected by the same flood. With the development of the science of hydrology, it has been confirmed with a good degree of confidence that hydrologic regime with all its natural and temporal variations (both intra-annual and inter-annual) are needed to maintain and restore the natural form and function of aquatic ecosystems. However, this prerequisite is not in line with the traditional water management practice which is functionally attuned to influence and dampen natural fluctuations with the objective to provide steady and undisturbed supply of water for different in-stream and out-of-stream activities(Richter et al., 2003) . Moreover, for intervening and containing extreme drought and flood events, the traditional water management initiatives rather relied on moderating and limiting flow fluctuations. Many studies indicate ‘natural flow regime’ as a determinant toing-stream flow needs of a water body. For example, (Richter et al,1996) and (Puff et al. 1997) generalized that natural flow conditions may indicate and determine in-stream flow requirements. There exists a correlation between stream-flow and other physicochemical characteristics critical to ecological integrity of streams and rivers(Puff etal., 1997). Precisely, flow can be associated to some direct as well indirect or secondary impacts and as such flow characteristics can be used as surrogates for other in-stream indicators and ecosystem conditions and importantly the components of a flow regime as shown infigure-1, are very much accessible to scientific inquiry (IFC, 2002,Poff et al. 1997, Richter et al., 1996) . Any disruption, fragmentation and dilution of this natural regime of water-flow leads to ‘Hydrological alteration’ and in general, this can be defined as any anthropogenic disruption in the magnitude or timing of natural river flows (Biosciences, 50-9, 2000). The natural flow regime of a river is dependent on various factors including rainfall, temperature and evaporation when considered in a broader geographic scale or macro-scale and is also influenced by the physical characteristics of a catchment at the catchment level or micro-scale(Rash et al, 1988) . As mentioned earlier, river flow regimes are also affected directly and indirectly by human activities. Such human interventions disrupting natural flow of a river through construction and operation of reservoirs and dams have the potential of triggering a series of undesirable consequences like extensive ecological degradation, loss of biological diversity, water quality deterioration, groundwater depletion, and also more frequent and intense flooding(Puff et al, 1997). Reservoir are built to store water to compensate for fluctuations in river flow, thereby providing a measure of human control of water resources, or to raise the level of water upstream to either increase hydraulic head or enable diversion of water into canal. The creation of storage and head allows reservoirs to generate electricity, to supply water for agriculture, industries, and municipalities, to mitigate flooding and to assist river navigation(Rash et al. 1988). The biological effects of hydrologic alterations are often difficult to disentangle from those of other environmental perturbations in heavily developed catchments as identified by Rosenberg et al. (Environmental Reviews 5: 27–54, 1997) . The impacts of large-scale hydrological alteration include habitat fragmentation within rivers (Dynes us and Nilsson 1994) , downstream habitat changes, such as loss of floodplains, riparian zones, and adjacent wetlands and deterioration and loss of river deltas and ocean estuaries (Rosenberg et al. 1997)36,deterioration of irrigated terrestrial environments and associated surface waters (McCall 1996) . Hydrological alterations also bring another indirect or secondary impacts on the genetic, ecosystem and global levels. They can cause genetic isolation through habitat fragmentation (Pringle 1997) , changes in processes such as nutrient cycling and primary productivity (Pringle 1997, Rosenberg et al. 1997),etc. With the realization of the importance of natural flow regime and the possible dangers posed by human alterations, there emerged a relatively new and promising water and ecology management paradigm. Many researchers started seeing this as a very comprehensive and sound management option and on many occasions stressed regarding the urgency of protecting or restoring natural hydrologic regimes (Sparks 1992;National Research Council, Doppler et al. 1993; and Dynes us Nilsson 1994) . Effective ecosystem management of aquatic, riparian, and wetland system requires that existing hydrologic regimes be characterized using biologically-relevant hydrologic parameters, and that the degree to which human-altered regimes differ from natural or preferred conditions be related to the status and trends of the biota(BD, Richter, etal, 1997). Ecosystem management efforts should be considered experiments, testing the need to maintain or restore natural hydrologic regime characteristics in order to sustain ecosystem integrity. Only some limited studies have closely examined hydrologic influences on ecosystem integrity and this is mainly because most of the commonly used statistical tools are poorly suited for characterizing hydrologic data into biologically relevant attributes(BD, Richter, etal, 1997). Without such knowledge, ecosystem managers will not be compelled to protect or restore natural hydrologic regime characteristics. However, recently, there have been some significant developments in the field of hydrological studies and importantly few robust computer statistical tools and models like IHA Range of Variability Approach (RVA) using the (Indicators of Hydrologic Alterations, BD, Richter, etal, 1997), Wetted Physical Habitat Simulation System (PHABSIM Model, Jowett, 1997)35, Flow Incremental Methodology (FIM), other Hydrologic Modelling Software like GAWSER, Ontario Flow Assessment Techniques (OFAT), etc. are now known to exist(Jowett, 1997). The following sections attempt to evaluate and assess the possible effects of hydrological alteration specifically induced by human interventions or activities. A very useful computer model called the model (available at Freshwaters.com) has been used for generating and evaluating the effects of flow variations. The ecological zone considered for analysis in this paper is the ‘Exe river Estuary’ region and the gauging station selected is 45001 Exe at Thorverton. The Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) Method – Approaches Application The evaluation and assessment of the flow regime of the Exe-river system and the variations it witnessed after the construction of the ‘Wimbleball Reservoir’ have been accomplished by the application of Avery detailed computer-modelling tool known as the IHA or ‘Indicators of Hydrologic Assessment’ model. The software basically takes birth from the concept of integrity and wholesomeness of the ‘natural flow regime ‘and is configured and capable of determining the relative transformations and variations in this natural flow regime subject to any natural or artificial modifications or alterations (BD, Richter, etal, 1997). At first, it requires defining and identifying a series of biologically-relevant hydrologic attributes that characterize intra anointer-annual variations in water conditions which are further processed for a robust statistical variation analysis after isolating the data-sets to represent two different periods resembling the pre-impact and post-impact scenarios (Rosenberg, et al, 2002). The Nature Conservancy is now the custodian of this statistical tool, which is very useful for assessing the degree to which human activities have changed flow regimes (US-EPA, 2002). Brian D. Richter and et al. from the Nature Conservancy (Richter D. Brian, etal, 1996-97) have identified four basic for this analysis and they are: (I) Define the data series (e.g., stream-gauge or well records) for pre- and post-impact periods in the ecosystem of interest. (ii) Calculate values of hydrologic attributes Values for each of 32ecologically-relevant hydrologic attributes are calculated for each year in each data series, i.e., one set of values for the pre-impact data series and one for the post-impact data series. (iii) Compute inter-annual statistics Compute measures of central tendency and dispersion for the 32 attributes in each data series, based on the values calculated in step 2. This produces a total of 64 inter-annual statistics for each data series (32 measures of central tendency and 32 measures of dispersion). (iv) Calculate values of the Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration -Compare the 64 inter-annual statistics between the pre- and post-impact data series, and present each result as a percentage deviation of onetime period (the post-impact condition) relative to the other (there-impact condition). The method equally can be used to compare the state of one system to itself over time (e.g., pre- versus post-impacts just described); or it can be used to compare the state of one system to another (e.g., an altered system to a reference system), or to compare current conditions to simulated results based on models of future modification to a system. The same computational strategies will work with any regular-interval hydrologic data, such as monthly means; however, the sensitivity of the IHA method for detecting hydrologic alteration is increasingly compromised with time intervals longer than a day (Richter. Brian, etal, 1996-97). Detection of certain types of hydrologic impacts, such as the rapid flow fluctuations associated with hydropower generation at dams, may require even shorter (hourly) interval. They have also suggested that ‘the basic data for estimating all attribute values may preferably be daily mean water conditions (levels, heads, flow rates). Hydrologic conditions in general can vary in four dimensions within an ecosystem (three spatial dimensions and time).However, the three spatial domains can be scaled down to one with the assumption that only one spatial domain exists at any strategic location over time in a river system. Restricting the domain to one specific point within a hydrologic system (like any measuring point in river) makes it simple for us to identify specific water conditions with one spatial and one temporal domain. These events may be specific water conditions like heads, levels, rate of change, etc. (Richter Brian, etal, 1996) whose temporal variations can be recorded and assessed from that particular spatial point or from a single position. Such temporal changes in water conditions are commonly portrayed as plots of water condition against time, or hydrographs. Here, we seek to study and analyse the variations in hydrologic conditions using indicators and attributes, which should essentially be biologically relevant as well as responsive to human influences or modifications like reservoir and dam operations, ground water pumping, agricultural activities, etc. at the same time (Richter D. Brian, etal,1996,). Importantly, a variety of features or parameters of hydrologic regime can be used and functionally superimposed (Sense South wood 1977, 1988; Puff Ward 1990}40 to virtually represent and finally characterize the physical habitat templates (Townsend Hilde, 1994)43 or environmental filters (Sense Eddy 1992)42that shape the biotic composition of aquatic, wetland, and riparian ecosystems. The IHA method is based on 32 biologically relevant hydrologic attributes, which are divided into five major groups to statistically characterize intra-annual hydrologic variation as showman Table-1. These 32 attributes are based upon the following five fundamental characteristics of hydrologic regimes: 1. the magnitude of the water condition at any given time is measure of the availability or suitability of habitat, and defines such habitat attributes as wetted area or habitat volume, or the position of water table relative to wetland or riparian plant rooting zones; 2. the timing of occurrence of particular water conditions can determine whether certain life cycle requirements are met, or influence the degree of stress or mortality associated with extreme water conditions such as floods or droughts; 3. the frequency of occurrence of specific water conditions such as droughts or floods may be tied to reproduction or mortality events for various species, thereby influencing population dynamics; 4. the duration of time over which a specific water condition exists may determine whether a particular life cycle phase can be completed, or the degree to which stressful effects such as inundation or desiccation can accumulate; 5. the rate of change in water conditions may be tied to the stranding of certain organisms along the waters edge or in pounded depressions, or the ability of plant roots to maintain contact with phreatic water supplies. A detailed representation of the hydrologic regime can be obtained from these 32 parameters for the purpose of assessing hydrologic alteration. Importantly, all the parameters having good ecological relevance do not call for any parameter specific statistical analysis and all of them can be processed by single and unique approach like they (Kozlowski 1984; Bustard 1984; Puff Ward 1989)46. Also, because certain stream-flow levels shape physical habitat conditions within river channels, it is needed to identify some hydrologic characteristics that might aid in detection of physical habitat alterations. (Richter D. Brian, etal, 1997). Sixteen of the hydrologic parameters focus on the magnitude, duration, timing, and frequency of extreme events, because of the pervasive influence of extreme forces in ecosystems (Gaines Denny 1994)48 and geomorphology (Leopold1994)49 and other 16 parameters measure the central tendency of either the magnitude or rate of change of water conditions (Table-2). The rationale underlying the five major groupings and the specific parameters included within each are described below. Table-2: Summary of various Hydrological Groups Groups Descriptions Number of total Hydrologic Parameters 1 Magnitude of monthly water conditions 12 2 Magnitude duration of annual extremes 10 3 Timing of annual extremes 02 4 Frequency duration of high low pulses 04 5 Rate frequency of change in conditions 04 Group-1: Magnitude of Monthly Water Conditions This group includes 12 parameters, each of which measures the central tendency (mean) of the daily water conditions for a given month. The monthly mean of the daily water conditions describes â€Å"normal daily conditions for the month, and thus provides a general measure of habitat availability or suitability. The similarity of monthly means within a year reflects conditions of relative hydrologic constancy, whereas inter-annual variation (e.g., coefficient of variation) in the mean water condition of a given Month provides an expression of environmental contingency (Colwell 1974; Puff Ward1989). The terms constancy and contingency as used here refer tithe degree to which monthly means vary from month to month (constancy),and the extent to which flows vary within any given month(contingency). Group-2: Magnitude and Duration of Annual Extreme Water Conditions The 10 parameters in this group measure the magnitude of extreme(minimum and maximum) annual water conditions of various duration, ranging from daily to seasonal. The durations that we use follow natural or human-imposed cycles, and include the 1-day, 3-day, 7-day(weekly), 30-day (monthly), and 90-day (seasonal) extremes. For any given year, the 1-day maximum (or minimum) is represented by the highest (or lowest) single daily value occurring during the year; thematic-day maximum (or minimum) is represented by the highest (or lowest) multi-day average value occurring during the year. The mean magnitudes of high and low water extremes of various duration provide measures of environmental stress and disturbance during the year; conversely, such extremes may be necessary precursors or triggers for reproduction of certain species. The inter-annual variation (e.g. Coefficient of variation) in the magnitudes of these extremes provides another expression of contingency. Group-3: Timing of Annual Extreme Water Conditions This group includes 02 parameters one measuring the Julian date of the 1-day annual minimum water condition, and the other measuring the Julian date of the 1-day maximum water condition. The timing of the highest and lowest water conditions within annual cycles provides another measure of environmental disturbance or stress by describing the seasonal nature of these stresses. Key life cycle phases (e.g. Reproduction) may be intimately linked to the timing of annual extremes, and thus human induced changes in timing may cause reproductive failure, stress, or mortality. The inter-annual variation in timing of extreme events reflects environmental contingency. Group-4: Frequency and Duration of High and Low Pulses This group has 04 parameters include two, which measure the number of annual occurrences during which the magnitude of the water condition exceeds an upper threshold or remains below a lower threshold, respectively, and two, which measure the mean duration of such high and low pulses. These measures of frequency and duration of high- and low-water conditions together portray the pulsing behaviour of environmental variation within a year, and provide measures of the shape of these environmental pulses. Hydrologic pulses are defined here as those periods within a year in which the daily mean water condition either rises above the 75th percentile (high pulse) or drops below the25th percentile (low pulse) of all daily values for the pre-impact time period. Group-5: Rate and Frequency of Change in Water Conditions The four parameters included in this group measure the number and mean rate of both positive and negative changes in water conditions from one day to the next. The Rates and frequency of change in water conditions can be described in terms of the abruptness and number of intra-annual cycles of environmental variation, and provide a measure of the rate and frequency of intra-annual environmental change. Assessing Hydrologic Alteration In assessing the impact of a perturbation on the hydrologic regime, we want to determine whether the state of the perturbed system differs significantly from what it would have been in the absence of the perturbation. In particular, we want to test whether the central tendency or degree of inter-annual variation of an attribute of interest has been altered by the perturbation (Stewart-Oaten et al.1986)55. The assessment of impacts to natural systems often poses difficult statistical problems, however, because the perturbation of interest cannot be replicated or randomly assigned to experimental units (Carpenter 1989; Carpenter et al. 1989; Hulbert 1984;Stewart-Oaten et al. 1986)66. The lack of replication does not hinder estimation of the magnitude of an effect, but limits inferences regarding its causes. However, the IHA method is robust and can be easily adapted to more sophisticated experimental designs. A standard statistical comparison of the 32 IHA parameters between two data series would include tests of the null hypothesis that the central tendency or dispersion of each has not changed. However, this null hypothesis is generally far less interesting in impact assessments than questions about the sizes of detectable changes and their potential biological importance. A standardized process for assessing hydrologic impacts is included within the IHA software. The Range of Variability Method (RVA) is another analysis frame in which to assess change in structured manner. This method of determining hydrologic alteration is based on the theory that there is natural variability in stream-flow. The RVA software would plot and determine whether an activity, such as water taking, would alter the stream-low outside this normal variability. Significant alteration would occur if the stream-low regime were altered more than one standard deviation from the natural variability, which may have ecological consequences. Development of Pre- and Post-Impact scenarios When adequate hydrologic records are available for both there-impact and post-impact time periods, application of the IHA method will be relatively straightforward using the statistical procedures described above. When pre- or post-impact records are nonexistent,include data gaps, or are inadequate in length, however, various datareconstruction or estimation procedures will need to be employed. Examples of such procedures include the hydrologic record extension techniques described by Searcy (1960) and Alley Burns (1983).Hydrologic simulation modelling or water budgeting techniques can also be used to synthesize hydrologic records for comparison using the IHAmethod (Linsley et al. 1982)73. Accounting for Climatic Differences Climatic differences between the pre- and post-impact time periods obviously have the potential to substantially influence the outcome of the IHA analysis. Various statistical techniques can be used to test for climatic differences in the hydrologic data to be compared. When the IHA analysis is to be based upon actual hydrologic measurements rather than estimates produced from models, a reference site or set of sites uninfluenced by the human alterations being examined can be used as climatic controls (Alley Burns 1983). For example, stream-gauge may exist upstream of a reservoir thought to have impacted study site. Analyses can establish a statistical relationship between stream-lows at the study site and at the upstream reference site using synchronous pre-dam data sets for the two sites. This relationship can then be used to estimate the stream-low conditions that would have occurred at the study site during the post-impact time period in the absence of the reservoir. IHA Application- Description of Study Site As mentioned earlier, the principal motive of this study is tantalize and evaluate the impacts, if any, of human interventions like reservoir operations on the overall sanctity and natural integrity, i.e. the natural hydrologic regime of water bodies like rivers. Here the operation of a well know reservoir in the south-west coast of Britain called the ‘Wimbleball reservoir’ has been identified as the human intervention point which is sufficiently used to store and supply water to cater to human needs like hydropower, drinking water supply, etc. (SW-Environment Agency, 2003)81 and eventually it ends up regulating a river system in the process. The down-stream water body and habitat, which is expected to come under the influence of the alterations resulting from the Wimbleball reservoir operations, considered here is the Exe-river estuary system. The main motivation for selection of the above reservoir and the river system happens to bathe strategically located river monitoring system (gauge-station),which falls in the influence zone. This station is designated as‘No.45001-Exe at Thorverton’ having a grid reference of ‘21 (SS) 936016’ (NRFA Data Holdings, 2005)66. Figure-2 (enclosed) shows diagrammatic representation of the Exe-river catchments area along with the positions of the river and reservoir. The national authority NRFA, describes the monitoring station as â€Å"Velocity-area station with cableway and flat V-Crump profile weir constructed in 1973 due to unstable bed condition† (NRFA, 2005)66. There also exists minor culvert flow through mill u/s of station included in rating. Notably, Low flows are affected significantly by the operations of the Wimbleballreservoir post-1979 and by exports to the Taw catchment. Station iscontrol point for operational releases from Wimbleball (NRFA DataHoldings, 2005)66. The headwaters drain Exmoor and the geology is predominantly Devonian sandstones and Carboniferous Culm Measures, with subordinate Permian sandstones in the east, Moorland, forestry and arrange of agriculture (NRFA Data Holdings, 2005)66. The Exe Estuary is partially an enclosed tidal area composed of both aquatic (marine, brackish and freshwater) and terrestrial habitats. The Estuary makes an important contribution to the diversity of British estuaries by virtue of its unspoilt nature, international conservation importance, recreational opportunities and high landscape value(SW-Environment Agency, 2003) . This Estuary flows through an open landscape with gently rolling hills on either side. It is shallower than many estuaries in the south west of England, so the tide plays significant role, wit

mr :: essays research papers

My Grade 11 co-op placement was Sherwood Hunt Law Office. There are two Lawyers there, an office manager, and two law clerks. I usually spent most of my time with the law clerks and began to learn a lot from them right from the beginning. Jim Hunt, the lawyer who was present the most at the law office was whom I had to time to have nice, insightful conversations with about Law, School, and life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I always thought of how hard it was going to be in university and law school. I got to talk to Jim to see just how hard he had to work in school to make him as successful as he is now. He told me about when he was going for his MBA, he had twelve exams near Christmas, and if that wasn’t hard enough, if he got lower than a B on any of them, he was out of the course. These were just a few of the challenges Mr. Hunt had to face.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My usual day involved answering the phones, making some photo copies, and doing odd jobs, like opening or closing files, and writing or revising a letter or document of some sort.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Being at this placement I learned many things. To begin with, I learned some of the challenges I’m going to have to face in school, and how hard I’m going to have to work. I was talking to Mr. Hunt about my current courses and I mentioned that I was worried that my strengths in Math and Physics would not be useful in the law workplace. Fortunately, Mr. Hunt reassured me that they are plenty useful in the law environment, and in fact, Jim got a 99 in University Physics.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I also learned specific skills at this work place. Things that will help me out as I become a lawyer, such as, how to write an affidavit, open and close files (although this may change at different law offices) and read a statement of claim or search through files to find one specific point. Also, I learned about serving a defendant / plaintiff in a law suit. This can be a very time consuming process, (or a very simple one) and there is usually someone that is paid to do this. In one case in the law office, they had to hire a Private Investigator to find a person to be â€Å"served†.

Slough by Sir John Betjeman Essay -- Poems Poetry Analysis

Sir John Betjeman’s poem, Slough, opens with a wonderful, dramatic stanza. There is huge tension between the ideas of cows grazing and the idea of death. Even in the opening line there is conflict ‘friendly bombs’ is a contradiction in terms, as bombs are almost never thought of as friendly, and Betjeman’s use of this defines what a bad place. Another tool Betjeman employs is rhythm; the stanza is at a steady, predefined pace until the last line where the rhythm is broken with the word ‘Death’, which gives a powerful image of Slough. In the second stanza, Betjeman cleverly compares people’s ‘minds’ and ‘breath’ to tinned products, giving everything a feeling of sanitised dullness, without fresh air. He also uses the form here, listing the everyday tinned items and then adding ‘tinned m...

Kes the Play

kes In this assignment I am writing about the play called†kes†how Barry Hines the author of Kes brought his characters to life. He has gone into great detail and time to produce this play by trying to bring his characters to reality by their language , the surroundings of that area and the clothing they wear. The area where this scene is set is in a rough, unpleasant place, Barnsley. Although Barnsley is local to us, it is an industrial working class area were poor unwealthy people go to work and try to make end meet to feed their families. All these characters show how they act as normal on an ordinary day, because Barry Hines needed to get across the description that effect his characters in the play. Billy did not have a good relationship between his family his mom and brother. His mom does not care for Billy, all she wants to do is go to parities and knockabout with men, this shows that her children don’t come first in her life. Billy clothes are dirty and appalling with wholes and stains in them because he doesn’t wash his clothes. In the morning when he wakes up his mom doesn’t leave tea in the pot for him and tells him to go to the shop for her to buy cigs, before he goes to school, so Billy will be late, Billy runs out the house and goes to school after having an argument with his mom to go to the shop for cigs. His mom doesn’t have any money for him for hi school dinner because she spent it the night before or she needs it for the night ahead. Billys brother Jud steals his snap for school and takes his bike so Billy’s got nothing for school. Jud went out one night and got really drunk when he came home, Jud woke Billy up to undress him because he was too drunk to do it himself, it is the only way Billy can get his own back by slapping and shouting at him â€Å"you drunken sow og pig bastard. Billys school life is not much better than his home life; his school is run down, horrible and dirty. He thinks the whole world is against him and does get along with other kids in school he doesn’t knock about with any mate’s accept his kestrel bird. Barry Hines the other of Kes describes a bewildering scene into which Billy fits appropriately when he is fighting over a schoolmate over his brother â€Å"Im not frightened of him that would be if he were here I bet I know somebody who could fight him. Soon the fight broke out in the playground everyone gathered round. There is one teacher in the school that takes and interest in Billy due to the hawk. He helped Billy against McDowel so Billy would not get into trouble. The teacher Mr Farthering finds out about Billy’s hawk and asked if he could see the bird. The kestrel is the only pleasure Billy gets in his life, he found it in the formers land in the forest and asked if he could have it, ever since he has owned Kes (name of the bird) he’s been training it, he was so interested in this bird he went to the library to find a book on kestrel but he was not allowed to take it out because he was not a member so he stole it, because Billy was not wealthy his brother and him had to share a bed together. Billy has a paper round, when he goes to collect his papers he steals chocolates and drinks he does this because he is hungry and he probably doesn’t get enough food at home. Billy does his papers in a bad area, the owner of the newsagent Mr Potter said Billys brother Jud gave Billy ? 10 to go and bet on a hoarse, so he went down prepared to bet for Jud as he was down there, Billy spoke to one of Jud’s mates and said it wasn’t worth betting on that hoarse, well Billy did not need to be told twice so he used the money to buy food for him and his bird. As soon as Jud found out his hoarse won and there was no bet on it he went looking for Billy, but Billy hid every time he saw his brother, so Jud stopped looking and went to find Billys only friend in the world and killed his hawk. As soon as Billy found his bird he ran and buried it in the field and went to bed.

Internal and External Sources of Finance Essay

I will explain the different sources of finance, some of which are internal and external to the Loxford Business unit. I will state the advantages and disadvantages of each of the sources of finance. Loxford Business Unit use both internal and external sources to get money in order to run the Business Unit successfully. Source of Finance Definition Internal or external Advantages Disadvantages Applicable to the Loxford Business Unit Retained Profits An amount of money saved aside from the business earning to be used when necessary. Internal The money doesn’t have to be repaid and there is no interest. Also they are flexible as management -have complete control over how the money is reinvested and what portion is kept rather than paid as dividends. The disadvantages are: There will unhappy shareholders as they will receive lower dividends. Also retained profit is not available for new business as they main aim will be to survive and break even, so therefore they will either make no profit or little profit. The Loxford Business will only use retained profit if the amount is large enough, if not then there will be no need to use the retained profit. Owners Savings Money from the owner’s personal savings. Internal Cheap – because there is no interest that has to be paid. Flexible – the money can be used for whatever reasons the owner please. The disadvantages are: It is risky – as you may waste your money. Not enough money – The money may not be enough. The Loxford Business Unit may use the owners fund if there is enough available however in order for the business to expand successfully the owners fund may not be enough. Overdraft A loan arrangement under which the bank extends credit up to a maximum amount. External Flexible- there when needed, Efficient – allows a business to make essential payments and maintains cash flow. Quick – quick and easy to arrange. Useful temporary cash The disadvantages are: Costs- overdrafts carry interest is often at much higher rates than loans, therefore making it expensive for a business for long-term borrowing. Recall – Unless specified in the terms and conditions, the bank can recall the entire overdraft at any time. This may happen if you fail to make other payments, or if you have broken terms and conditions; though sometimes the banks simply change their policies. They are terms and conditions. The Loxford Business Unit may use an overdraft as its quick process so it will give the business immediate money. Also this type of finance is suitable because the money will be available when needed. Venture Capital Money provided by investors to start up firms. External Willingness -The investors are more willing to invest. Gain information – The investors are a valuable source of information, advice and resources. Value added services – such as mentoring, alliances and advice. Provides funding that a business company needs to expand its business. The disadvantages are: Control- the investors will expect a say in decisions. Long process- It can be a long and complicated process. Lots of paper work required to provide such as a business plan, including financial records. Accounting Fee -The business will have to pay legal accounting fees whether or not they will successful in securing funds. Loxford Business Unit may use a venture capitalist for professional help and advice about achieving the necessary grades although this process will be long and complicated, it will be worth it in the long-term because it mean that students will achieve good grades overall. Bank Loan Borrowing money from the bank over a period of time which is then to be paid back with interest. External Reliability – Loans are very reliable and secure, you are assured the money for the duration of the loan (unless you break terms and conditions). Complicated process- Must have right documentations such as business plan and cash flow forecast. Money will be paid back with interest. A bank loan will be efficient for the Loxford Baines Unit because they will be given a large sum of money, which is to be paid back slowly and in instalments.

Cause and Effect of Cheating in School Essay

Every action has a consequence, whether it is good or bad. The choices you make can follow you the rest of your life. Cheating is an issue that affects many students at one time or another throughout their education. There are many different ways to cheat: copying homework, looking over at a peers test, plagiarizing, and so on. Nothing good comes from cheating your way through school, the only person you are cheating is yourself. There are serious consequences for cheating. Every teacher has different ways of punishing their students. Some teachers are hard on their students and give them the maximum punishment they can give them. However, as i’ve witnessed teachers are surprisingly lenient on their students. Many just give them a warning or make them retake the test. The problem with teachers doing this is that the students never really learn their lesson. It enables them to cheat more, if they know they won’t have serious consequences for their actions, they will be more willing to try to test their luck. Cheating is most likely to occur in students who lack effort in their studies. Students who do not attend class or do not study are not likely to get passed on their own. Therefore, they find cheating to be a good and easy way for them to pass. Nothing can be gained by cheating. Of course, a better grade may be given, but they are not learning anything by stealing somebody’s hard work. The cheater may be passing the class with a great grade, but where will the cheater be when the finals come around and they no longer have a way to cheat. Cheating can result in a tragic cycle. Once you start it is hard to stop. A person may believe that they are benefiting themselves by cheating to receive a better grade. They put off studying and never really learn the material. At the same time they are doing well in the class. Many people may not see what the problem would be, less work and good grades. What’s to complain about! However, this cannot continue forever. It will catch up to you and you will regret it. When it comes time for you to know the material, you will have to learn from the beginning or receive an unsatisfactory grade. Even if you manage to get a good grade, it cannot make you feel good knowing you did not earn it. There is going to come a time in your life when you are going to need to put what you learned in school to use in real life. If you did not do the work, you will not be able to do this. In college they are to prepare you for your career. If you plan on cheating your way through college you may want to rethink your game plan. Imagine a surgeon cheating his way through school and not really learning what was necessary to perform his job. Would you feel comfortable having this doctor operate on you? There are more things at stake than good grades. You have to think of your future and the person you want to be. Nothing in life comes easy, if you want to make it you are going to have to work at it. There is no reason you should be rewarded for cheating your way through school. It is always better in the long haul to be honest and do your own work. Once you make doing your own work a habit it will become easier. It will also build your self-esteem. Having that pride when you graduate will be one of the best feelings in your life. You can think to yourself that you did this, it wasn’t because of anyone else, it was all you. All those late nights of studying and group study sessions have paid off. You know that you are able to set a goal for yourself and find the strength within you to accomplish this goal. If you are able to do this, you are capable of so much more. Your future will be bright. When looking for a job when you are older, employers look for certain qualities. They look for a good work ethic, someone with good leadership qualities and, someone who isn’t lazy but who is willing to do what is needed to be done to finish the job. You will have more confidence going into an interview if you are well qualified for the job. Nothing good comes from cheating. It may trick you in the short hall but you need to have the strength to do the right thing. You need to be more concerned with your future, and less concerned with cheating your way through a class just so you have more free time. Today’s generation will never succeed if they do not learn to take responsibility. We are truly blessed to be given a proper education, many countries are not as fortunate as us. In a way Americans have become spoiled and have taken their education for granted. They do not view it as being important. We need to look at other nations, and realize what they would give up just to be able to learn like we do. We need to get back to a place where we are thirsting for knowledge and not just doing the bare minimum to get by. Over all, the consequences of cheating vary greatly, from being dealt with on a serious level or to just have to live with knowing deep down inside that what you have done is wrong. Some say cheating is not wrong unless the person gets caught, but cheating is no different than stealing, and stealing is wrong no matter what. I think everyone would admit that. As an individual you must take pride in yourself and do your own work. It is your life and you should want to be the best you can be. Cheating in the short run will only hurt you in the future.

Profit Maximization Model

SAMPLE ANSWER FOR QUESTION 5 Profit-making is one of the most traditional, basic and major objectives of a firm. Profit-motive is the driving-force behind all business activities of a company. It is the primary measure of success or failure of a firm in the market. Profit earning capacity indicates the position, performance and status of a firm in the market. In spite of several changes and development of several alternative objectives, profit maximization has remained as one of the single most important objectives of the firm even today.Both small and large firms consistently make an attempt to maximize their profit by adopting novel techniques in business. Specific efforts have been made to maximize output and minimize production and other operating costs. Cost reduction, cost cutting and cost minimization has become the slogan of a modern firm. It is a very simple and unambiguous model. It is the single most ideal model that can explain the normal behavior of a firm. Main proposit ions of the profit-maximization model The model is based on the assumption that each firm seeks to maximize its profit given certain technical and market constraints.The following are the main propositions of the model. 1. A firm is a producing unit and as such it converts various inputs into outputs of higher value under a given technique of production. 2. The basic objective of each firm is to earn maximum profit. 3. A firm operates under a given market condition. 4. A firm will select that alternative course of action which helps to maximize consistent profits 5. A firm makes an attempt to change its prices, input and output quantity to maximize its profit. The model Profit-maximization implies earning highest possible amount of profits during a given period of time.A firm has to generate largest amount of profits by building optimum productive capacity both in the short run and long run depending upon various internal and external factors and forces. There should be proper balan ce between short run and long run objectives. In the short run a firm is able to make only slight or minor adjustments in the production process as well as in business conditions. The plant capacity in the short run is fixed and as such, it can increase its production and sales by intensive utilization of existing plants and machineries, having over time work for the existing staff etc.Thus, in the short run, a firm has its own technical and managerial constraints. But in the long run, as there is plenty of time at the disposal of a firm, it can expand and add to the existing capacities build up new plants; employ additional workers etc to meet the rising demand in the market. Thus, in the long run, a firm will have adequate time and ample opportunity to make all kinds of adjustments and readjustments in production process and in its marketing strategies. It is to be noted with great care that a firm has to maximize its profits after taking in to consideration of various factors in to account.They are as follows – 1. Pricing and business strategies of rival firms and its impact on the working of the given firm. 2. Aggressive sales promotion policies adopted by rival firms in the market. 3. Without inducing the workers to demand higher wages and salaries leading to rise in operation costs. 4. Without resorting to monopolistic and exploitative practices inviting government controls and takeovers. 5. Maintaining the quality of the product and services to the customers. 6. Taking various kinds of risks and uncertainties in the changing business environment. . Adopting a stable business policy. 8. Avoiding any sort of clash between short run and long run profits in the business policy and maintaining proper balance between them. 9. Maintaining its reputation, name, fame and image in the market. 10. Profit maximization is necessary in both perfect and imperfect markets. In a perfect market, a firm is a price-taker and under imperfect market it becomes a price -searcher. Assumptions of the model The profit maximization model is based on tree important assumptions. They are as follows – 1.Profit maximization is the main goal of the firm. 2. Rational behavior on the part of the firm to achieve its goal of profit maximization. 3. The firm is managed by owner-entrepreneur. Determination of profit – maximizing price and output Profit maximization of a firm can be explained in two different ways.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Total Revenue and Total Cost approach.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Marginal Revenue and Marginal Cost approach. Profits of a firm are estimated by making comparison between total revenue and total costs. Profit is the difference between TR and TC.In other words, excess of revenue over costs is the profits. Profit = TR – TC. If TR is equal to TC in that case, there will be break even point. If TR is less than TC, in that case, a firm will be incurring losses. In this case, we take in to account of total cost and total revenue of the firm while measuring profits. It is clear from  the following diagram how profit arises when TR is greater than that of TC. 2. MR and MC approach In this case, we take in to account of revenue earned from one unit and cost incurred to produce only one unit of output.A firm will be maximizing its profits when MR= MC and MC curve cuts MR curve from below. If MC curve cuts MR curve from above either under perfect market or under imperfect market, no doubt MR equals MC but total output will not be maximized and hence total profits also will not be maximized. Hence, two conditions are necessary for profit maximization- 1. MR = MC. 2. MC curve cut MR curve from below. It is clear from the following diagrams. Justification for profit maximization 1. Basic objective of traditional economic theory.The traditional economic theory assumes that a firm is owned and managed by the entrepreneur himself and as such he always aims at maximum return on his capit al invested in the business. Hence profit-maximization becomes the natural principle of a firm. 2. A firm is not a charitable institution. A firm is a business unit. It is organized on commercial principles. A firm is not a charitable institution. Hence, it has to earn reasonable amount of profits. 3. To predict most realistic price-output behavior. This model helps to predict usual and general behavior of business firms in the real world as it provides a practical guidance.It also helps in predicting the reasonable behavior of a firm with more accuracy. Thus, it is a very simple, plain, realistic, pragmatic and most useful hypothesis in forecasting price output behavior of a firm. 4. Necessary for survival. It is to be noted that the very existence and survival of a firm depends on its capacity to earn maximum profits. It is a time-honored hypothesis and there is common agreement among businessmen to make highest possible profits both in the short run and long run. 5. To achieve ot her objectives.In recent years several other objectives have become much more popular and all these objectives have become highly relevant in the context of modern business set up. But it is to be remembered that they can be achieved only when a firm is making maximum profits. Criticisms 1. Ambiguous term. The term profit maximization is ambiguous in nature. There is no clear cut explanation whether a firm has to maximize its net profit, total profit or the rate of profit in a business unit. Again maximum amount of profit cannot be precisely defined in quantitative terms. . It may not always be possible. Profit maximization, no doubt is the basic objective of a firm. But in the context of highly competitive business environment, always it may not be possible for a firm to achieve this objective. Other objectives like sales maximization, market share expansion, market leadership building its own image, name, fame and reputation, spending more time with members of the family, enjoying leisure, developing better and cordial relationship with employees and customers etc. lso has assumed greater significance in recent years. 3. Separation of ownership and management. In many cases, to-day we come across the business units are organized on partnership or joint stock company or cooperative basis. In case of many large organizations, ownership and management is clearly separated and they are run and managed by salaried managers who have their own self interests and as such always profit maximization may not become possible. 4. Difficulty in getting relevant information and data.In spite of revolution in the field of information technology, always it may not be possible to get adequate and relevant information to take right decisions in a highly fluctuating business scenario. Hence, profits may not be maximized. 5. Conflict in inter-departmental goals. A firm has several departments and sections headed by experts in their own fields. Each one of them will have its own independent goals and many a times there is possibility of clashes between the interests of different departments and as such always profits may not be maximized. 6. Changes in business environment.In the context of highly competitive and changing business environment and changes in consumer’s tastes and requirements, a firm may not be able to cope up with the expectations and adjust its policies and as such profits may not be maximized. 7. Growth of oligopolistic firms. In the context of globalization, growth of oligopoly firms has become so common through mergers, amalgamations and takeovers. Leading firms dominate the market and the small firms have to follow the policies of the leading firms. Hence, in many cases, there are limited chances for making maximum profits. 8.Significance of other managerial gains. Salaried managers have limited freedom in decision making process. Some of them are unable to forecast the right type of changes and meet the market challenges. They are more worried about their salaries, promotions, perquisites, security of jobs, and other types of benefits. They may lack strong motivations to make higher profits as profits would go to the organization. They may be contented with only satisfactory level of profits rather than maximum profits. 9. Emphasis on non-profit goals. Many organizations give more stress on non-profit goals.From the point of view of today’s business environment, productivity, efficiency, better management, customer satisfaction, durability of products, higher quality of products and services etc. have gained importance to cope with business competition. Hence, emphasis has been shifted from profit maximization to other practical aspects. 10. Aversion to reduction in power. In case of several small business units, the owners do not want to share their powers with many new partners and hence, they try to keep maximum powers in their hands.In such cases, keeping more power becomes more important than profit maximization. 11. Official restrictions over profits of public utilities. Public utilities or public corporations are legally prohibited to make huge profits in many developing countries like India. Thus, it is clear that a firm cannot maximize its profits always. There are many constraints in the background of multiple objectives. Each one of the objectives has its own merits and demerits and a firm has to strike a balance between all kinds of objectives.